Sūrat al-Baqarah
Sūrat al-Baqarah
Observations on the structure, organization, and cohesion of Sūrat al-Baqarah
﷽
Sūrat al-Baqarah (The Cow) is famously the longest sūrah in the Quran and covers a myriad of topics. The subject matter seems to flow between such a variety of ideas, without obvious relevance to each other, that most readers find it difficult to comprehend the coherence of it all.
The alleged “randomness” of it seems to make any attempt to understand this sūrah’s structure a lost cause. Many scholars of the past abandoned trying to tie all the āyāt together, and instead took an atomistic approach to their work. However, relatively recent studies have revealed a high degree of structure and organization in this lengthy sūrah.
Because of the multiple layers of depth, it may be best to demonstrate the macro-structuring of the sūrah and break up the analysis based on each section therein. When the entire sūrah’s subject matter is summarized, it appears that the contents can be organized into a ring structure.1
We will revisit this ring towards the end once we have delved a bit into each of the sections. The connections we make then will be easier to understand.
Section [A] – Believers vs Disbelievers
Section [A] can be broken down into five smaller mirror or ring structures.
CONNECTIONS
[A1.1]/[A1.1’] – The first structure in this sūrah begins and ends with guidance. The Quran is called hudan (guidance) for the God-conscious, and the believers are described as on hudan from their Master.
[A1.2]/[A1.2’] – Both these sections highlight the virtue of faith. The God-conscious are those who yu’minūna (believe) in the unseen and, as described in the complementary section, yu’minūna in what was revealed to the Messenger ﷺ, what was revealed to the previous prophets, and in the afterlife.
[A1.3]/[A1.3’] – The center focuses on actions; establishing prayers and spending on good causes. Thus, the entire mirror structure summarizes what it means to be a believer. One must recognize guidance, believe in it, and then act according to it.
CONNECTIONS
[A2.1]/[A2.1’] – The sealing of the hearts, vision, and hearing is paired with them being described later on as deaf, dumb, and blind. Their disbelief has cost them all faculties for comprehension.
[A2.2]/[A2.2’] – Allah ﷻ describes people who say “āmannā (We believed),” but they do not truly believe. They try and deceive Allah ﷻ and the believers, but they only succeed in deceiving themselves. Complementing this, the disbelievers are quoted as saying to the believers, “āmannā (We believed)” in an attempt to deceive and mock them. However, Allah ﷻ says that it is in fact they who are mocked and their efforts will not benefit them.
[A2.3]/[A2.3’] – Both sections share very similar wordings. Both begin, “wa idhā qīla la-hum (And when it is said to them), ‘Do not cause corruption’/’Believe,’ they say…” And both sections end “alā inna-hum hum (but it is they, they are the) corrupters/fools.”
CONNECTIONS
[A3.1]/[A3.1’] – This section begins by imploring mankind to worship our Master who “khalaqa-kum (created you).” And then Allah ﷻ goes on to list the things He created like the earth, sky, and our sustenance. Finally, the opening ends with Allah ﷻ criticizing the disbelievers for setting up partners with Him “wa antum tʿalamūn (while you know).” Similarly, the section ends with Allah ﷻ appealing to His ability to create, and recreate (i.e., resurrect) us. He also says that He “khalaqa la-kum (created for you all), all that is on the earth,” and that He made “seven skies.” Finally, it ends with Allah ﷻ describing Himself as completely “ʿalīm (knowledgeable).”
[A3.2]/[A3.2’] – Both parts deal with the disbelievers and their inability to engage with the Quran. When they are challenged to create a single sūrah to rival the Quran, they fail. And when they cannot deal with the Quran’s challenge, they resort to questioning its contents and mocking the examples therein. They cannot compete with Allah’s Word on any level.
[A3.3] – The ring centers on the believers and their heavenly reward for belief and good actions.
CONNECTIONS
[A4.1]/[A4.1’] – The creation of mankind as a vicegerent is linked to his status being recognized by the other creations.
[A4.2]/[A4.2’] – Both instances highlight Allah’s knowledge of things no one else is privy to.
[A4.3]/[A4.3’] – Adam learns the names of all things and then informs the angels of those names.
[A4.4] – The angels confess to their lack of knowledge and highlight Allah’s complete knowledge and wisdom.
CONNECTIONS
[A5.1]/[A5.1’] – Satan’s disobedience and being labeled as a “disbeliever (kāfirīn)” is paired with those who “disbelieve (kafarū)” and are consequently thrown into the Fire.
[A5.2]/[A5.2’] – Allah ﷻ gives Adam and Eve guidance for their life in the Garden. Allah ﷻ then assures us that we can reattain His Garden if we follow His guidance in this life. Allah ﷻ also mentions that those who follow His path will have “no fear upon them and nor will they grieve,” which is the state of the inhabitants of the Garden previously mentioned.
[A5.3]/[A5.3’] – Both sections highlight mankind and Satan being told to “go down” to Earth because of their transgressions.
[A5.4] – The ring centers on Allah’s forgiveness. We may occasionally disobey Allah ﷻ, as was highlighted in the outer sections, but He will accept our repentance so long as we take accountability and commit to coming back to Him.
Interestingly, if these five smaller structures are placed into an equipoised structure there are many observations that can be made.
CONNECTIONS
[A1]/[A2] – Looking horizontally, the first two mirror structures form complementary opposites (“The believers” vs. “The disbelievers”). Take special notice of the messages that are highlighted by each of the mirror structures. The first mirror structure ([A1] - The believers) introduces the themes of guidance, faith, and righteous action, while the second mirror ([A2] - The disbelievers) is concerned with the opposite characteristics.
[A4]/[A5] – The final two ring structures also form complementary opposites (“Adam and the angels” vs. “Adam and Satan”). The centers of the two bottom rings highlight the themes of faith and righteous deeds respectively.
[A1]/[A4] – Looking vertically, we see the faithful believers being paired together (“The believers” and “Adam and the angels”).
[A2]/[A5] – Looking vertically again, we see the disobedient paired together (“The disbelievers” and “Adam and Satan”). The repentance of Adam highlights the difference between what makes one a disobedient believer rather than a disobedient disbeliever (like Satan).
[A3] - The ring in the center (Allah and creation, belief in the revelation, and resurrection), brings together the main themes of the surrounding sections, and the Quran in general: monotheism and creation, faith and disbelief in the revelation, and the afterlife. It outlines the contents, attitudes, and consequences of faith and disbelief. At its own center, and hence the central āyah of the entire section, it draws attention to the reward in store for those who have faith and perform righteous actions.
Finally, the entire section is bracketed by the same key terms and themes, forming what is known as an inclusio2 or envelope structure:
OPENING (1-7)
CONCLUSION (38-39)
Section [B] - Criticism of the Israelites
Structurally, Section [B] is arranged into two back-to-back ring structures.
CONNECTIONS
[B1]/[B1’] – The section begins with an address to the Israelites to believe and fulfill their pact with Allah ﷻ to be firm in their faith. However, by the end of this entire mirror structure, Allah ﷻ makes it clear that the Israelites will not believe. They have failed their pact and have denied the Messenger ﷺ, even though he “has come to them, confirming their own Scriptures.”
[B2]/[B2’] – Allah ﷻ reminds the Israelites to fear the Day of Judgment and that He will not save them from the consequences of their own deeds as He saved them from the Pharaoh’s persecution. On the other side, Allah ﷻ mentions the Israelites’ death, but emphasizes that they fear death because of what they have done. They cling to life because they know the consequences if they were to be judged.
[B3]/[B3’] – The first half shows Allah’s mercy as He mentions the Israelite’s sin of worshiping the calf, but continuously stresses His forgiveness and the possibility of repentance. However, in the second half, Allah ﷻ again brings up their worshiping of the calf, but declares that “the love of the calf was rooted in their hearts because of their disbelief.” In other words, they have given up trying to seek repentance for their crimes.
[B4]/[B4’] – The earlier section deals largely with the Jews of Moses’ time and their repeated acts of disobedience and their violation of their covenant with Allah ﷻ. Likewise, the later section focuses on the crimes of the Jews in the Messenger’s time. They are accused of very similar crimes as their ancestors. They disobey, commit acts of disbelief, and violate their covenant.
[B5] – The center aptly describes the hard hearts of those who have been transgressing in the surrounding text. Though the hearts are hard, not everyone is the same. There are still those that can turn back to Allah ﷻ and restore the life to their spiritual heart.
CONNECTIONS
[B6]/[B6’] – Both sections of the outer ring focus on doubt, mockery, and stubbornness. Instead of believing in the revelation, disbelievers ask nonsensical questions, mock instructions, or refuse to change from their religion to Islam.
[B7]/[B7’] – There is a heavy emphasis in both sections on Allah’s complete control of the heavens and the Earth, as well as His oneness.
[B8]/[B8’] – There is a contrast between the messengers being disrespected with the mosques being disrespected. Both are physical representations of Allah’s authority on Earth, and yet both are not given their due rights by the non-Muslims.
[B9]/[B9’] – Both sections deal with the claims of the Christians and the Jews. In the first instance they assert that only people of their faith with attain salvation. In the other instance, they turn on each other and claim that neither has authority to speak. Ironically, neither is correct in their assessment, and it is actually Allah ﷻ who will judge between them with justice since it is actually Islam that is the true path to salvation.
[B10] – After all the mockery, disbelief, and false claims on either side of the center, the ring’s central pivot rests on the true believers. Those who submit themselves to Allah ﷻ and do good will have their reward with their Master, they will not have anything to fear, and they will never grieve again after death.
The above analysis concludes the study of Section [B] – Criticism of the Israelites. Notice that throughout the sūrah, the centers of the structures repeatedly emphasize the themes of faith in and submission to Allah ﷻ.
Section [C] - Abraham’s Legacy
The previous section on the Children of Israel transitions to a new section on Prophet Ibrāhīm (Abraham), the progenitor of both the Israelites and the Ishmaelites, which would encompass the entirety of the Arab and Jewish audience residing in Arabia at the time of revelation. Accordingly, Allah ﷻ summons both the Israelites and the Ishmaelites to be muslims (those who submit) and to believe in all the prophets of Prophet Abraham’s line.
This section highlights Abraham’s spiritual legacy which is captured in the following ring structures:
CONNECTIONS
[C1]/[C1’] – The ring structure begins with Allah ﷻ imploring the Israelites to remember Allah’s favor upon them. They were blessed by being one of the earliest communities upon guidance. But the final part of the ring then says that only a fool would turn away from the way of Abraham, as if to say that turning away from Islam is like turning away from Allah’s favor.
Allah ﷻ also mentions Abraham’s leadership qualities in the beginning. The conclusion similarly highlights his amazing legacy by recording how Abraham was successfully able to teach and transfer his religion to many generations after himself.
[C2]/[C2’] – Abraham is concerned for his future descendants and specifically asks Allah ﷻ if His covenant will encompass them all. Allah ﷻ responds in the negative in [C3], but Abraham’s prayer for a messenger to come from his progeny in [C3’] is answered with the coming of the Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ. So, both sections were concerned with Abraham’s future generations.
[C3]/[C3’] – Both parts highlight the responsibility of Abraham and Ishmael to build and purify the Kaʿbah.
[C4] – At the heart of this passage is Abraham’s prayer for the safety and security of Makkah. And this is fitting as the next section, Section [D], focuses on the change in prayer direction from Jerusalem (a city ravaged by war and famine throughout the ages) to Makkah (a historically safe and secure town).
CONNECTIONS
[C5]/[C5’] – Allah ﷻ begins and ends this ring with the exact same message; we will all be held to account for what we did, not what others did.
[C6]/[C6’] – The top section mentions the call of the People of the Book to follow their respective religions, but Allah ﷻ reframes their request and tells them to follow the way of Abraham. Similarly, the connected section again mentions Abraham, but goes a step further to imply that not even his family were Christians or Jews.
[C7]/[C7’] – Both sections command us to declare our submission to Allah ﷻ and His message. In the earlier section we are told to say, “And it is to Him that we submit (wa-naḥnu la-hu muslimūn),” while the latter section similarly tells us to say, “And it is Him that we worship (wa-naḥnu la-hu ‘ābidūn).”
[C8] – This ring centers on what may be considered the core message of this section. The People of the Book have two options; 1) submit to Allah ﷻ as all the previous prophets did, including Abraham and his lineage, or 2) turn away from the message and face the consequences of that decision as mentioned in the outer ring.
Section [D] - The Change of Prayer Direction to the Kaʿbah
In keeping with the emphasis on Abraham’s legacy, Allah ﷻ proclaims that the direction of prayer has shifted from the former site of the Holy Temple of Jerusalem to the Kaʿbah, which Abraham and his son, Ishmael, built in Makkah. This shift in prayer direction is also symbolic of the Muslims becoming an independent nation; the true religion for all mankind.
In summary, this section has the following ring structure. The connections are self-evident and outlined in the graphic below.
Section [C’] - Restoring Abraham’s Legacy
Earlier, the Muslims were reminded of the legacy of Prophet Abraham, but now Allah ﷻ reminds them that restoring Abraham’s legacy is no easy task, for just like their father Abraham, they are about to be heavily tested. The section has the following ring structure whose connections have been summarized below:
It should also be noted that the center, [C11], is internally structured as a parallelism:
And within [C11.1], āyah 164 appears to be in its own ring structure:
Section [B’] - Laws for the New Muslim Nation
Before the newly founded community can engage with other nations – whether that is in battle or otherwise – it is in need of laws. The concluding statement of the last section, known as the Āyah of Piety, sets the ethical tone for the body of legislation that will follow it. This section may be organized in the following ring structure:
Section [A’] - The Struggle of the Believers Against the Disbelievers
In the last part of the sūrah, several important themes are brought to a close. These include the contrast between faith and disbelief, with a focus on the intense effort to free the Kaʿbah from those who reject faith. The section also emphasizes Allah's authority over all creation, including the ability to bring the dead back to life. It delves into the concept of the Day of Judgment, highlighting its significance. Additionally, the sūrah discusses regulations concerning financial transactions. Despite these seemingly unrelated topics, we will once again witness the intricate connections that tie them all together.
As a whole, the section has the following ring structure:
The central message assures the believers that, despite their small numbers and resources in comparison to the disbelieving Quraysh, Allah ﷻ is able to give them victory.
Inside the above ring structure are four observable symmetrical structures. The first captures āyāt 243-251:
Note how the centerpiece reinforces a message similar to the one in the larger ring.
The next ring is found in āyah 255, famously known as Āyat al-Kursi, (The Āyah of the Throne).
CONNECTIONS
[A8.1/A8.1’] - Allah ﷻ begins with two of His names, al-Ḥayy (the Living) and al-Qayyūm (the Sustainer) and similarly ends with two of His names, al-’Alīy (the Exalted) and al-’Aẓīm (the Great).
[A8.2/A8.2’] – The next sections correspond to each other in that they both point to Allah’s lack of need to rest. Allah ﷻ tells us that He does not sleep, nor does He even fatigue. Both statements complement one another by covering all aspects of tiredness.
[A8.3/A8.3’] - Allah ﷻ then shifts to the topic of His control. He owns everything in the heavens and on the earth, but one might then ask about His control of things within these domains because ownership does not always necessitate control. The corresponding sentence then informs us that His control over the two aforementioned domains is as extensive as His ownership is absolute.
[A8.4/A8.4’] – These are linked through the shared reference to Allah ﷻ as the One who grants permission. We need His permission to intercede on behalf of others and for others to intercede for us. Likewise, we need His permission to access knowledge of any type.
[A8.5] - At the center Allah ﷻ tells us that He knows what is coming and what has already happened. This is quite fitting in the ring structure, as if to say, “what os coming is just as what has already occurred in this passage.”
Additionally, we find a symmetrical structure embedded within āyāt 261-274. The relationships have been presented directly in the graphic below:
Finally, there appears to be a mirror structure for āyāt 275-281. Again, the connections are explained in the following graphic:
Besides the symmetrical structures above, it has been observed that the entire section alternates between various themes and methods of narration.3 For example, the content of Section [A’] switches between the themes of spending and Allah’s power over life and death:
There is also the alternation between the themes of faith and action:
Finally, there is alternation between narrating a story and mandating laws or other forms of instruction:
The Big Picture
Before delving into the overall sūrah structure, here is a ring structure of the themes present throughout, which may also serve as a reminder of what has been covered above:
Coming back to the overall sūrah, the following analysis will be based on the breakdown originally presented at the beginning of this study, reposted below:
CONNECTIONS
The sūrah is structured into two panels, [ABC] and [C’B’A’], which serve as mirrors of each other. These panels are unified by the central point, [D]. The first panel, [ABC], predominantly focuses on the Children of Israel, introducing the themes of faith and disbelief. However, it delves into a more comprehensive exploration of the concept of disbelief.
In Section [A] – Believers versus Disbelievers, there is a brief description of the believers and their qualities (2-5). However, the focus shifts to a detailed description of the disbelievers, specifically the hypocrites (6-20). In the following sections, it becomes apparent that these detailed descriptions are about individuals from the Children of Israel.
In Section [B] – Criticism of the Israelites, the criticism of the Israelites begins with Allah ﷻ addressing a particular religious community, which is not the Muslims as anticipated. Instead, the focus is on the Children of Israel: "Children of Israel, remember My favor that I favored you with..." (41). The entire section proceeds to examine the history of the Children of Israel and emphasize their inability to uphold their faith and obey the divine commandments.
Section [C] - Abraham’s Legacy opens with a similar address to the Israelites - “Children of Israel, remember My favor that I favored you with and that I privileged you over all peoples” (122) - and calls especially on them to return to the way of Abraham.
Opposite this, the second panel, [C’B’A’], shifts focus to the newly formed Muslim community. Just as the first panel directly addressed the Israelites, the second panel addresses the new Muslim nation - “O you who have believed…” (153). Also in contrast between the panels are the respective community’s abilities to maintain the legacy of Abraham. The Children of Israel demonstrated their rebellion and rejected guidance while the believers fully submit to Allah ﷻ and honorably accept the mantle of inheritors of Abraham’s legacy.
Sūrat al-Baqarah revolves around the Ka'bah
Section [D] (The Change of Prayer Direction to the Kaʿbah) in the sūrah serves as the pivotal point around which the entire sūrah revolves. It focuses on the significant shift in the direction of prayer, from Jerusalem to the Kaʿbah, which holds great importance for believers who physically turn towards it during their ritual prayers and circle around it during the pilgrimage. This section also marks the formal announcement by Allah ﷻ of the establishment of the Muslim community as a balanced nation.
With the change in prayer direction and the revelation of this section, the Muslims are established as the newly chosen religious community or nation (ummah), taking over the role previously held by the Children of Israel. This transition is explicitly mentioned in āyah 150, where Allah ﷻ declares, "It is so that I may complete My favor upon you and so that you may be guided," recalling earlier mentions of Allah's favor upon the Children of Israel.
This central section also reveals the overarching theme of the sūrah: the establishment of the new Muslim nation, tasked with preserving and carrying forward the legacy of Abraham. This community is characterized by its submission to Allah ﷻ and unwavering faith in all of Allah's messengers and revelations, in contrast to the previous religious community, the Children of Israel. Each section and topic within the sūrah align harmoniously with this central theme, contributing to its overall development.
The Motifs of Election, Instruction, and Test
Interestingly, it has been observed that there is a recurring pattern in the sūrah, which involves a combination of the topics of election, instruction, and test.4 “Election” refers to the divine appointment of a person or group to a special role and position. “Test” refers to a test of the obedience of a person or group. “Instruction” refers to Allah’s provision of guidance in the form of a command or counsel. In each case, it is Allah ﷻ who does the electing, testing and instructing of human beings. These motifs appear throughout the sūrah in varying combinations:
In Section [A], Adam, representing the human race, is divinely elected to the position of Allah’s representative on the earth. He is then tested with the command not to approach the forbidden tree. Finally, when he “slips” and eats from the tree, Allah ﷻ provides Adam instructions on how to obtain His forgiveness.
Section [B] alludes to the Israelites’ election to the position of Allah’s chosen nation. The section refers to the instructions they were given in the form of the Covenant (the Torah). However, they were repeatedly tested and failed the tests, eventually resulting in their loss of their elected positions.
In Section [C], Abraham is tested. As a result of passing these tests, he is elected to the position of being “a leader for mankind.” Finally, he is instructed to build and purify the Kaʿbah.
In Section [D], the people of Madinah - including both the Muslims and Jews - are tested with the change of ritual prayer direction and instructed to pray towards Makkah. The Muslims obeyed the command, and were thus elected as the new divinely chosen nation, taking over the position the Israelites previously held.
In Section [C’], the community is warned that, because of their election to this role, they will face upcoming tests, which will involve a loss of lives and fruits. However, they are given various instructions to prepare them for these tests, which extend all through Sections [B’] and [A’].
The above analysis also reveals another interesting pattern:
Notice that the first and last examples, “the story of Adam” and the “address to the Muslim nation” display an identical pattern: election, test, instruction. Then, in the second and second-to-last examples, “the Children of Israel” and “the change of ritual prayer direction,” these occur in the opposite order: election, instruction, test and test, instruction, election. Finally, and very appropriately, in the center is “the story of Abraham,” which is characterized by its own unique pattern of test, election, instruction.
Conclusion
In the case of Sūrat al-Baqarah, until recently regarded as the most chaotic of all suwar in the Quran, we have seen that a careful study reveals a beautiful and intricate structure, as well as profound logic and coherence. And this is despite this series being a truncated summary of the available research on the topic—we did not properly broach the subject of linear coherence, for example.
In the beginning, we said to keep in mind that this sūrah was revealed over the course of many years, not in the order it is compiled today, while responding to real-time events.
Having now gone through a preliminary analysis of the sūrah’s structuring, one can only wonder how much more there is to discover in this burgeoning field.
And that concludes our study of Sūrat al-Baqarah!
And Allah ﷻ knows best
If you would like to see the original inspiration for this analysis, please see:
Farrin, Structure and Qur’anic Interpretation.
If you want to see a more (maybe the most?) detailed breakdown of this sūrah, I refer you to:
Ali Khan, Nouman and Sharif Randhawa. Divine Speech: Exploring the Quran as Literature. Bayyinah Institute, 2016.
What follows is a summary of Randhawa and Khan’s work. Because of the length of their writing, I am only going to focus on the structures without looking into the extensive integrative coherence that they highlighted. However, I have added the details of the “CONNECTIONS” as those were absent from the original sources.
In other words, an inclusio is a fancy way of saying that the material at the beginning and end of a section match. So, just the outer-most parts of a ring or mirror structure.
Nevin Reda El-Tehry, Textual Integrity and Coherence in the Qur’an: Repetition and Narrative Structure in Surat al-Baqara (PhD diss., University of Toronto, Toronto, 2010)
Ibid.